One of the greatest discoveries of the 20th century, feeding the world and transforming the energy of the future.
Ammonia (NH₃) is not just a pungent, caustic gas. It is the invisible hero of modern civilization, the foundation of agriculture, without which one-third of the Earth's population would be at risk of starvation. The discovery of large-scale ammonia production became one of the most important scientific breakthroughs of the 20th century, radically changing humanity.
The Haber-Bosch process, developed in the early 1900s, solved one of the most pressing problems of that time - the problem of nitrogen fixation from the atmosphere for the production of fertilizers and explosives.
Although this process has remained virtually unchanged for over a century, modern research is aimed at improving it - reducing energy consumption and transitioning to environmentally friendly production. This article tells the fascinating history, science, and future of ammonia production.
The history of ammonia synthesis is not only a history of technology but also of complex human relationships. The breakthrough would have been impossible without intensive communication between scientists, especially between Fritz Haber and Walter Nernst.
Their interaction, including the famous meeting of the German Bunsen Society in Hamburg in 1907, is often described as a dramatic confrontation between the older and more experienced Nernst and the young and ambitious Haber. However, today it can be viewed as an example of productive professional exchange, where criticism and discussions contributed to the generation of new knowledge 2 .
Developed the catalytic process for ammonia synthesis (Nobel Prize 1918)
Scaled up Haber's process for industrial production (Nobel Prize 1931)
Contributed to thermodynamics and early nitrogen fixation research
Since the 1960s, ammonia production technologies have gone through several generations of improvements, leading to significant reductions in energy consumption:
| Period | Generation | Energy Consumption, Gcal/t NH₃ | Reduction Compared to 1960s |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1920s | I | ~35.5 | - |
| 1960s | II | ~14.5 | Baseline |
| 1970-1980s | III | 10.07-11.2 | 29% Reduction |
| Modern | IV | 6.8-6.9 | 52% Reduction |
As can be seen from the table, modern ammonia production consumes almost three times less energy than the first plants and almost half as much as 1960s production 5 .
The heart of the Haber-Bosch process is the catalyst - iron, on the surface of which nitrogen molecules are split with subsequent hydrogenation to ammonia. Research has shown that doping iron with elements such as potassium significantly increases catalytic efficiency 1 .
The process requires extreme conditions: high pressure (150-250 atmospheres) and temperatures (300-550°C), making it energy intensive.
Ammonia production consumes about 3-5% of all natural gas extracted, which accounts for 1-2% of global energy reserves 1 .
From air separation
From natural gas reforming
Catalytic reaction
NH₃ product
Modern licensors such as Haldor Topsoe, Kellogg Brown & Root, Ammonia Casale and others have proposed various solutions for process optimization:
Reduce synthesis pressure by 30% and energy consumption up to 0.3 Gcal/t NH₃ 5
Allow reduction of steam/gas ratio, save 5-10% fuel and increase reforming capacity by 15-25% 5
Uses low synthesis pressure (80-110 atm) and hydrogen recovery, reducing energy consumption to 6.8-6.9 Gcal/t 5
In 2010, researchers from Cambridge conducted an experiment aimed at better understanding the mechanism of the ammonia formation reaction. Scientists used high-purity iron monocrystal and conducted experiments under ultra-high vacuum 1 .
Iron monocrystal was bombarded with nitrogen ions to create a uniform coating of nitrogen atoms on the iron surface.
Using Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES), the degree of occupancy of the iron surface by nitrogen atoms was quantitatively determined.
The sample was treated with molecular hydrogen injected at a pressure of 0.6 millibar.
After holding in a hydrogen atmosphere for several minutes, vacuum was created again in the chamber and AES spectroscopy was used to determine how many nitrogen atoms remained on the surface.
Several such cycles made it possible to plot the dependence of the hydrogenation rate of nitrogen atoms on time and temperature 1 .
This research allowed quantitative determination of the kinetics of hydrogenation of nitrogen atoms on the surface of an iron catalyst. The results obtained can be used to optimize the hydrogenation stage in industrial ammonia production, potentially leading to increased efficiency of the entire process 1 .
| Reagent/Material | Function in Research |
|---|---|
| High-purity iron monocrystal | Main catalyst for nitrogen dissociation |
| Atomic nitrogen | Key reagent for studying fixation mechanisms |
| Molecular hydrogen | Reagent for hydrogenation of nitrogen atoms |
| Doping additives (K, Al, Ca) | Modifiers to improve catalyst efficiency |
| Auger electron spectrometer | Analysis of surface composition and occupancy |
Russian ammonia producers have a competitive advantage in the form of access to cheap natural gas, but face the problem of outdated equipment. Natural gas consumption indicators at Russian enterprises vary widely:
| Enterprise | Natural Gas Consumption, m³ per ton NH₃ |
|---|---|
| JSC "Acron" | 1,115; 1,130 (depending on unit) |
| JSC "Mineral Fertilizers" | 1,174 |
| JSC "Azot" (Berezniki) | 1,250 |
For comparison, the best global indicators are at the level of 1115 m³ per ton of ammonia, demonstrating the potential for modernization of Russian production 5 .
| Country | Natural Gas Price, $/m³ | Production Cost, $/t |
|---|---|---|
| Russia | 40-60 | 130-160 |
| USA | 200-430 | 220-450 |
| Western Europe | 200-450 | 220-470 |
| Ukraine | 100-130 | 180-200 |
| Middle East | 30-40 | 60-90 |
The data shows that Russia has one of the lowest production costs for ammonia, but still lags behind the Middle East and some other regions 5 .
Traditional ammonia production contributes significantly to global CO₂ emissions - 1.3% of all energy system emissions. Its production consumes about 2% of global final energy consumption, with 70% coming from natural gas and 26% from coal 7 .
Green ammonia - production using hydrogen obtained by electrolysis of water using renewable energy - is becoming an increasingly attractive alternative. According to various development scenarios, by 2050 ammonia production through electrolysis could reach 92.2 metric tons in a zero-emissions scenario 7 .
Renewable Energy Source
Water Electrolysis
Green Hydrogen
Ammonia Synthesis
Green Ammonia
Modern research focuses on reducing the temperature and pressure of ammonia synthesis using heterogeneous catalysts, making the process more suitable for decentralized production using renewable energy sources 6 .
The discovery of ammonia synthesis was a turning point in human history, allowing food security for billions of people. Despite its more than century-long history, the Haber-Bosch process continues to improve - from small optimizations to fundamental changes aimed at creating sustainable, environmentally friendly production.
The future of ammonia is seen not only in the traditional role of a fertilizer source but also as a multifunctional energy carrier capable of playing a key role in the global transition to a green economy. Ongoing research in catalysis, process optimization, and integration of renewable energy sources opens new horizons for this century-old but still relevant technology.